A factor that effect normal speech development Essay

A factor that effect normal speech development - Essay Example At 2 years of age, the child is able to utter 2- word phrases. By 3 years, the child is able to form sentences, uses plurals and past tense, can make sentences with 3 to 5 words and 90% of the talk is understood by strangers. At 4 years of age, the child can make sentences with 6 words, can converse and tell stories. At 5 years of age, the child can make sentences with 6- 8 words, can name 4 colors and can count ten pennies correctly (Schwartz, 1990; qtd. in Leung & Kao, 1999). Delay in the development of speech is a major concern to both parents and pediatricians. Speech delay can occur with or without delay in other milestones. A child is considered to have delay in the development of speech when the speech milestone attained is significantly lower than that which is normal for that age. It is important to identify, investigate and institute appropriate intervention in speech delay because; this can have significant impact on the social, academic, personal and vocational life of th e individual. There are many causes for delayed development of speech. The most common cause of speech delay is mental retardation. Infact, it accounts for more than 50% cases of speech delay (Leung & Kao, 1999). Most often, speech delay occurs due to inadequate stimulation of the child. An older dominating sibling may steal all the attention of the elders of the house. Various hereditary factors can affect speech development. Delayed speech in parents can result in delayed speech in the offspring also. Many genetic diseases which lead to global developmental delay or mental retardation can contribute to delayed speech. Exposure to many languages at a time or frequent changes in the childs environment can contribute to delayed speech. Chronic ear infections, effusions and impacted wax can lead to hearing debility and hence delayed speech. Intact hearing is vital to speech and language development in the first few years of life.

Ethical Decision Reflection Essay Example for Free

Ethical Decision Reflection Essay To let go of someone you dearly love is very painful to do. The pains cause by ending relationship is very unbearable. Some people may find their world tear apart when they realize that their relationship with their partner is not going well. I have had this relationship in the past that truly marks in my heart and in my mind. I do love this person very much despite of his weaknesses and flaws but many people around us do not like the idea of being us together. At first, I try not to give ear to their comments and opinions because of my love for my partner. But in a long run, I decide to call it quits because I find out that my partner is having an affair with other man; take note, it’s a â€Å"man. † It truly hurts me a lot because he exchanges me to a man! It is a big slap my on face. That is the first factor I consider when I break up with him. He is not trustworthy and faithful. I just strongly believe that a woman is meant to be with a man and a man is meant to be with a woman. Though I live in a liberated world but I cannot just take and stand with this kind of idea that is having an affair with same sex. When I break up with him, I feel so much freedom that I never been experiencing when we are still together. I don’t know why I feel that way, but that is how I really feel. I feel like a bird being imprison in a cage for a long time and has the chance to be released. When my friends especially my parents learn about it, they are very happy and relieve. They don’t just like my partner because they can smell something fishy on him. After the break, I feel such joy in my heart and feel more beautiful inside.

Vitamin D Impact on the Liver and Kidney

Vitamin D Impact on the Liver and Kidney Revised vitamin D copy Sources and forms of vitamin D Vitamin D, also termed calciferol, is a fat-soluble secosteroid compound that is an essential regulatory factor for calcium and phosphate metabolism in humans and animals. Its biological functions involve a physiological action in bone formation and mineralization, muscle contraction, nerve signal modulation and transmission as well as many cellular metabolic effects in various organs. There are two forms of vitamin D that are metabolically important; vitamin D2 or ergocalciferol and vitamin D3 or cholecalciferol. The nutritional sources of both forms are limited to certain types of foods that naturally contain vitamin D and therefore it is added to some foods as a supplement. 1.1.1- Exogenous (Diet) Both forms of vitamin D (D2 and D3) are exogenously obtained in low quantities from some types of food in the diet. Vitamin D2 is rare as it is produced from fungal and plant sources such as mushrooms and cereals, as a result of irradiation, by ultraviolet photons, of the plant sterol ergosterol. When these foods are ingested, ergocalciferol is absorbed into the blood. Vitamin D3 , on the other hand, is available in very low amounts from animal sources including oily fish such as salmon and mackerel; other sources include meat, liver, cheese, cod liver oil, eggs and fortified foods such as margarine and milk (Holick, 2006; Engelsen et al., 2005; Nowson et al., 2004). Farmed salmon, for example, contains only 25% of the vitamin D levels present in wild salmon, however, the amount of vitamin D in canned food may affected by modern processing methods (Chen et al., 2007). 1.1.2- Endogenous In humans the principal precursor of vitamin D3 is cholesterol which is obtained from the diet. Cholesterol is initially converted to 7-dehydrocholesterol, provitamin D3, through the action of enzymes termed the mucosal dehydrogenase complex, present in the small intestine. Provitamin D3, is then incorporated within chylomicrons and transported to the skin where temperature dependent photoisomerisation processing of 7-dehydrocholesterol takes place in epidermal cells resulting in the production of D3. Within the epidermal cells, vitamin D3 undergoes photocoversion to its isomers 5,6-transvitamin D3 and suprasterol, a process which relies on the amount of ultraviolet radiation absorbed; inadequate sunlight exposure compromises this process (Holick, 2003; Iqbal, 1994). Sunlight exposure is therefore a crucial element in the regulation and enhancement of endogenous cholecalciferol production (Dusso, et al., 2005; Iqbal, 1994; Reichel, et al., 1989; Smith, 1988). Once photoconversion is completed, cholecalciferol binds to Vitamin D Binding Protein (VDBP) and transported to the liver for further metabolic processing. Vitamin D metabolism Both forms of vitamin D (D2 and D3) undergo similar metabolic activation in the liver and kidney respectively to produce the physiologically active form 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. 1.2.1- Skin The skin is characterized by two layers, the outer epidermal region, consisting of several strata, and the inner dermal layer. Skin exposure to UVB rays in sunlight, characterized by a wavelength of 290 nm to 315 nm, allows the initial steps of vitamin D synthesis to occur using the substrate 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC) as illustrated in step 1 of Figure 1. UVB absorption by 7-DHC is thought to occur actively in the stratum basale and stratum spinosum regions of the epidermal layer. The substrate 7-DHC is an important intermediate of cholesteryl ester biosynthesis from squalene. During the reaction, 7-DHC forms procholecalciferol through B ring opening of the steroid structure. This transition state is relatively unstable and can further undergo photocatalyzed reactions to form lumisterol and tachysterol (Wolpowitz and Gilchrest, 2006). Lumisterol and tachysterol have been shown to prevent vitamin D reaching intoxicating levels and do not have any direct vitamin D effects (Bouillon et al., 1998). In addition to this protective mechanism, previtamin D poisoning is also prevented because this is an equilibrium reaction that allows cholecalciferol to revert back to 7-DHC (Webb, 2006). Cholecalciferol (previtamin D3) is produced upon double bond rearrangement of procholecalciferol and remains in the extracellular space where it becomes bound to the ubiquitous VDBP (Holick, 2005). Figure1. Sources and steps of vitamin D synthesis in the three major sites: skin, liver and kidney (Figure obtained from Wolpowitz and Gilchrest, 2006). 1.2.2- Liver Cholecalciferol that has been transported to the liver undergoes the first step of its bioactivation, the hydroxylation of carbon 25 (Dusso, et al., 2005) by two hepatic enzymes; the microsomal and mitochomdrial 25-hydroxylases (Deluca et al., 1990). In hepatic cellular microsomes and mitochondria, vitamin D3 is hydroxylated at carbon 25 and transformed to 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 by both 25-hydroxylase enzymes. This enzyme complex requires the presence of essential catalytic cofactors including nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAPDH), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), ferredoxin and molecular oxygen for this reaction to proceed (Sahota and Hosking, 1999; Ohyama et al., 1997; Kumar, 1990). Recently, large numbers of hepatic cytochrome P-450 enzymes exhibiting 25-hydroxylase action have been identified in vitamin D activation pathways; these enzymes include CYP27A1, CYP3A4, CYP2D25 and CYP2R1 (Dusso, et al., 2005; Cheng et al., 2003; Sawada et al., 2000). However, CYP2R1 is b elieved to be the principal enzyme in the hepatic pathway and the presence of a genetic mutation in its gene may compromise the outcome of this process; both CYP27A1 and CYP2D25 demonstrate high capacity and low affinity features, therefore, their activity is considered insignificant in this pathway (Dusso, et al., 2005; Cheng et al., 2003; Sawada et al., 2000). This metabolic step is inefficiently regulated, i.e. the levels of 25-hydroxy vitamin D are elevated as dietary intake of vitamin D increases. Consequently, over 95% of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in serum circulates as 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 which has a half-life of approximately three weeks, and is therefore used in the assessment of vitamin D status (Dusso, et al., 2005; Reichel et al., 1989). The metabolically inert 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 is then transported to the kidney for the second step of its bioactivation. 1.2.3- Kidney The second step of vitamin D3 bioactivation takes place at the proximal convoluted tubule of the kidney. Hydroxylation occurs at C-1 of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 whereby the highly active 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase (CYP27B1) incorporates a hydroxyl group to Carbon-1 of the first ring to form the biologically active metabolite 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (Holick,2006; Dusso, et al., 2005; Deluca et al, 1990; Reichel, et al., 1989). The high activity of 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase (CYP27B1) present in kidney is not unique to this organ and can also be found in some other organs (Bouillon, 1998). The renal hydroxylation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 is the rate-limiting step in the production of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and is well regulated. An alternative pathway of hydroxylation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 within renal mitochondria takes place at Carbon-24 to form 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 which is metabolically inert. This process is catalyzed by renal 24-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase in response to 1-ÃŽ ±-hy droxylase suppression. However, 24-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase not only initiates the attachment of the hydroxyl group at Carbon-24 but also enhances the dehydrogenation of 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and hydroxylation at Carbon 23 and 26 (Sahota and Hosking, 1999; Bouillon, 1998; Reichel, et al., 1989). Renal hydroxylases require the presence of catalytic cofactors that enhance their synthetic activities during this process. Figure 2 shows the details of vitamin synthesis including the enzymes and cofactors required for each step. Figure2. Enzymes, cofactor and intermediates compounds of vitamin D metabolism (Bouillon et al. 1998) 1.2.4- Regulation of vitamin D metabolism Numbers of factors have been demonstrated to be important in the regulation of vitamin D metabolism; particularly significant its regulation through renal production. The factors involved in this regulation comprise parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, dietary calcium and phosphate, insulin and insulin-like growth factor and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 itself (Holick,2006; Deluca, 2004; Sahota and Hosking, 1999). Key interactions of vitamin D with its receptor are known to initiate gene regulation. These mechanisms have been studied using vitamin D analogues which have revealed the mechanism of assembly of transcriptions factors and promotion of gene regulation by this molecule (Cheng et al., 2004; Wu et al., 2002). Figure 3 shows the effect of various regulators on vitamin D metabolism. Figure 3: Alternate pathway for vitamin D3 under different metabolic conditions of low mineral Ca and P levels, PTH concentration and secretion of GH / IGH (Figure obtained from Gomez, 2006). 1.2.4.1- Parathyroid Hormone Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is the primary regulator of renal 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 formation (Holick, 2006; Dusso et al., 2005; Bouillon et al., 1998; Issa et al., 1998). PTH regulates 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 production directly through enhancing 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase activity within kidney cells and increasing the genetic transcription rate of renal proximal tubular 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase both of which result in an increase in the renal 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 production rate. High levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppress the enzyme transcription activity and PTH concentration. Thus, renal 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 has a negative feedback response on PTH secretion, providing an efficient regulatory control of renal 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 homeostasis (Dusso, et al., 2005; Holick,2003; Sahota and Hosking, 1999; Reichel, et al., 1989; Iqbal, 1994). 1.2.4.2- Calcium Dietary calcium exhibits a direct regulatory influence on renal 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase activity via fluctuating serum calcium concentration and indirectly via its effect on serum PTH concentration. Calcium exerts its effect through calcium-sensing receptor (CaR) activation within the parathyroid gland and renal proximal tubules cells in response to low calcium concentration. Thus, the low intracellular calcium levels lead to increased production of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 within renal cells (Ramasamy, 2006; Bland et al., 1999; Chattopadhyay et al., 1996). On the other hand, it has been shown that high calcium concentrations markedly impair renal 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 formation in human nephrotic cell cultures and in parathyroidectomised animals (Bland et al., 1999; Chattopadhyay et al., 1996). An increase in extracellular calcium indirectly suppresses 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 production at the proximal convoluted tubule by inhibiting PTH release (Deluca, 2004; Carpenter, 1990). Howev er, the detailed mechanism of calcium-sensing receptors (CaR) activation is not yet fully understood (Dusso, et al., 2005; Hewison, et al., 2000). 1.2.4.3- Phosphate Dietary phosphate intake and serum phosphate concentrations exhibit regulatory effects on 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 production in proximal renal tubules. This effect has been demonstrated in several studies which showed that a decrease in dietary phosphate accelerated renal formation of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, but did not directly affect 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 catabolism. Conversely, elevated serum phosphate and increased phosphate intake led to decreased production of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (Carpenter, 1989; Reichel et al., 1989). Several studies have shown that inorganic phosphate levels have no significant direct effect on mitochondrial 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase activity in cultured renal cells in the short term, suggesting that the action of inorganic phosphate is not mediated via changes in PTH and Calcium concentrations and is possibly inducted by other hormones such as growth hormone, insulin and insulin-like growth factor (Khanal et al., 2006; Dusso et al., 2005; Carpenter, 1 989). In recent studies, fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23), frizzled-related protein 4 (FRP-4) and matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein (MEPE) have all been identified as potent and key regulatory factors of 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase activity in renal cells. These factors act through a biphasic mechanism on renal phosphate homeostasis and modulate the circulating levels of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 produced by proximal renal tubules (Dusso et al., 2005; Inoue et al., 2005; Mirams et al., 2004). 1.2.4.4- Calcitonin Calcitonin belongs to a family of calcium regulating hormones that is produced in the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland, also known as C cells. It is a short and linear polypeptide with a molecular weight of only 3.7 kD. It is characterized by 32 amino acids and a disulfide bridge in the N terminal portion of the peptide. Calcitonin is secreted in response to increased free Ca2+ in blood and acts on osteoclasts, the bone resorbing cells, as a suppressor of bone dissolution. Although calcitonin decreases Ca+2 and inorganic phosphate in blood, it also has the ability to recruit phosphorus into other cells. In addition to these metabolic functions, it is also involved in the upregualtion of CYP27B hydroxylase through the protein kinase C pathway (Yoshida et al., 1999) via a phosphorylation cascade that activates cAMP and induces the expression of hydroxylase thereby activating the transformation of 25(OH) D3 to 1,25(OH)2 D3. In addition to the significant role as a calcium regulating hormone, calcitonin is also known to stimulate the production of vitamin D in tandem with PTH (Yoshida et al., 1999; Wongsurawat and Armbrecht, 1991). Previous studies revealed that 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase mRNA expression, 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase activity and the production of 25(OH)D and 1,25(OH)2D3 all increased in rat kidney cells following the administration of calcitonin (Yoshida et al., 1999; Galante et al., 1972; Rasmussent et al., 1972). However, in cases of diabetes, it is postulated that the kidney becomes immune to the effect of this hormone in diabetic rats which lead to increase vitamin D production (Wongsurawat and Ambrecht, 1991). 1.2.4.5- Growth hormone, Insulin and Insulin-like growth factor-1 Growth hormone (GH) has many regulatory actions in various metabolic processes in humans and mammals and its effect on mineral homeostasis in target organs such as bone and renal cells is well documented. While the regulatory effects of GH on dietary calcium and phosphate metabolism in different tissues have been established, its effect on vitamin D metabolism remains controversial. However, many studies have shown that GH increases the expression of 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase and 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in cultured cells and experimental animals (Gomez, 2006). Wu and colleagues reported that serum1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 increases after GH administration in hypophysectomized rats fed with a phosphate depleted diet. Short-term studies in healthy humans have shown that GH raises 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase enzyme activity and promotes 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 synthesis without changes in PTH, calcium and phosphate concentrations, suggesting that the increasing circulating levels of 1, 25-dihydroxy vitamin D3 following GH administration is not mediated by PTH action (Wu et al., 1997; Bianda et al., 1997; Wright et al., 1996). GH has also been shown to lead to increased production and serum concentration of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in pigs and in renal impaired prepubescent children. These are thought to be a result of the direct and indirect effects of GH on 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase expression, and on calcium and inorganic phosphate homeostasis in renal tubules cells (Strife and Hug, 1996; Denis et al., 1995). However, the action of GH on vitamin D metabolism in vitro remains uncertain and may involve other regulatory factors such as PTH and Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). It has been shown that GH does not raise 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 levels directly in cultured cells obtained from aged-rats; yet it stimulates calcium absorption and the expression of calcium binding proteins in vitro indicating that the effect of GH is mediated through the action of other factors such as IGF-1 (Fleet et al., 1991). Insulin is another key factor with a role in vitamin D homeostasis. Insulin significantly decreases renal hydroxylase activity and renal synthetic capacity of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in insulin deficient patients or those receiving insulin therapy (Armbrecht et al., 1996). However, a study of different routes of therapeutic insulin administration in human diabetic subjects concluded that insulin induces the hepatic hydroxylation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3. This effect is related to the fact that insulin is a potent inducer of the vast majority of liver hydroxylases enzymes (Colette et al., 1989). This study also showed that there was no significant difference in circulating levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 between different methods of insulin administration. Serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is maintained at normal concentrations in those subjects on long term insulin therapy; however, continuous intraperitioneal infusion procedure (CPII) may augment hepatic 25-hydroxlase activity (Col ette et al., 1989). Similarly insulin has shown a significant effect on stimulating 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 production through 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and PTH stimulation with no concomitant action on 24-hydroxylase expression in rat osteoblast cells when these cells were cultured with known concentrations of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and PTH (Armbrecht et al., 1996). Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is a relatively small peptide that is primarily expressed in hepatic cells and to a lesser extent in some other cells and tissues. It has been identified as one of the potent regulatory components of mineral metabolism in humans and mammals. Recent studies on the metabolic effect of IGF-1 revealed that the administration of IGF-1 to aged laboratory animals, fed on a calcium- and phosphate- deficient diet, can restore 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase activity and enhance the production of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. In contrast, there was no significant effect of IGF-1 on enzyme activity and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 levels in adolescent or elderly rats fed on a calcium and phosphate fortified diet concluding that the expression of IGF-1 is not age related but related to the dietary calcium and phosphorus status. (Gomez, 2006; Wong et al., 1997; Wu et al., 1997). In healthy human subjects, a significant effect of IGF-1 on renal 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 synthesis wa s observed after short term infusion with IGF-1. There was no noticeable alteration of the levels of circulating calcium, phosphate and PTH highlighting the role of IGF-1 in stimulating renal expression of 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 formation in conjunction with GH, independently from PTH (Bianda et al., 1997). In vitro studies have shown that IGF-1 influences the expression of 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 synthesis in cells cultured from non renal human tissues. Halhali and colleagues demonstrated that IGF-1 noticeably elevates both the enzyme activity and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 levels when added into cultured syncytiotrophoblast cells obtained from human placental sources. This study demonstrated that IGF-1 strongly enhances the ability of non renal cells to produce 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 without involvement of GH and PTH (Halhali et al., 1997). 1.2.4.6- 1, 25-dihyroxy vitamin D3 The circulating levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 modulate its production by renal cells through an indirect negative feedback mechanism. This mechanism appears to reduce the likelihood of vitamin D toxicity by inhibiting 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 synthesis by an indirect mechanism that controls the 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase gene expression at the molecular level rather than inhibiting 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 synthesis directly. However, the exact mechanism is not yet fully understood (Dusso et al., 2005; Deluca et al., 1990). A recent study examined the effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase production by cultured human keratinocytes. Keratinocytes were cultured with labeled 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and different concentrations of 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase mRNA and 24-hydroxylase- suppressed proteins. The 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 did not suppress either the 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase activity or the rate of gene transcription. The study implied that metabolic regulation of 1,25-dihydroxyvi tamin D3 is related to the molecules biodegradation in response to augmented 24-hydroxylase activity rather than 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 formation by 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase (Xie et al., 2002). In addition, Wu and colleagues demonstrated a possible alternative mechanism of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 synthesis linked to the fact that both 24-hydroxylase and 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase enzymes share equivalent metabolic capability and they proposed the possibility of protein- protein interaction between intracellular vitamin D binding protein and 1-ÃŽ ±-hydroxylase (Wu et al., 2002). 1.2.5- Vitamin D Transport, receptors and mechanism of action Vitamin D receptor (VDR), also known as calcitriol receptor, is a member of the steroid family and belongs to the nuclear receptor superfamily (NHR). Human VDR until recently was thought to comprises four functional units with a total of 427 amino acids residues with an estimated molecular weight of about 48 kDa. These units are the DNA binding domain (DBD) or C domain, the D domain and the ligand binding domain (LBD) or E domain. More recently, a carboxy-group with undefined function, known as the F region has been identified (Christakos et al., 2003; Aranda and Pascual, 2001; Rastinejad et al., 2000). These units as, shown in figure 4, are also known as A/B domain. The A/B region of VDR contains a low number of amino acids that participates in essential ligand-independent receptor stimulation (Aranda and Pascual, 2001; Issa et al., 1998). It is not yet clear if the deletion of A/B domain from VDR will compromise ligand binding, DNA binding or its transactivation features (Issa et a l., 1998). In contrast, the structure of the DNA binding domain or C region among NHRs comprises 40% unique amino acids sequences and a domain of more than 67 resemble amino acids residues (Rastinejad et al., 2000). Moreover, the core structure of DBD comprises between 22 and 114 amino acid residues, nine of them are cysteines. Eight of cysteine residues orchestrate with zinc atoms in tetrahedral fashion to form a dual â€Å"zinc-like finger† DNA binding configurations containing approximately 70 amino acids with a carboxy-terminal extension (CTE). This encloses T and A boxes in a dual helix molecule in which one helix is essential for definitive interaction with the main domain on DNA while the second helix takes a part in receptors structural properties (i.e. receptor dimerization) (Aranda and Pascual, 2001; Issa et al., 1998). However, the integration of the structural amino acids of the DBD ÃŽ ±-helix one, at the site of the first zinc atom, determines the selectivity and specificity of recognition of DBD and forms an area known as the â€Å"P Box†. Similarly; the integration of amino acids at the position of the second zinc atom modulates the formation of a configuration termed the â€Å"D Box† which forms a dimerization interface zone (Aranda and Pascual, 2001; Rastinejad et al., 2000; Issa et al., 1998). Furthermore the vast majority of DBD amino acid units are basic amino acids which enhance the non-covalent binding of the DNA helix at the negatively charged phosphate group (Issa et al., 1998). The ligand binding domain (LBD) or E domain has a spherical configuration with many functional regions composed of 12 cohered helix anchors defined as H1 to H12. LBD itself comprises a net of 427 amino acids which contribute to homodimerization and heterodimerization and the interaction of hormones and costimulaotors by a crucial transactivational mechanism (Aranda and Pascual, 2001; Weatherman et al., 2000; Issa et al., 1998). Crystallograp hic studies show that LBD have two cohered and integrated domains, the Ti or â€Å"signature motif† and the carboxy or C terminal AF-2 providing the self-ligand transcriptional properties; hence a higher degree of attraction of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 binding is observed at 382 to 402 of LBD amino acid sequence and any genetic aberration at this particular amino acids sequence will diminish the interaction capability of LBD (Aranda and Pascual, 2001; Issa et al., 1998). Figure 4: The primary structure of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and the binding of retinoid X receptor (RXR)-VDR heterodimers to vitamin D response elements (VDREs) in the form of DR3 and ER6 motifs. (Figure from Lin and White, 2003) 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, has been identified as steroid hormone with a mechanism of action similar to other steroid hormones, causing new protein expression in various target organs. Based on the nuclear receptors structural studies, calcitriol is known to exert its biological action through binding with VDR in the cell nucleus to mediate a cascade of transcriptional and translational processes resulting in either the regulation or inhibition of new protein expression in target tissues or the binding to plasma membrane receptors without stimulating new protein synthesis (Nezbedova and Brtko, 2004; Reichel and Norman, 1989). Two different receptors for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 have been recognized in different target cells; identified as genomic VDRnuc and typical VDRmem .These receptors provide the best dynamical conformational forms for calcitriol interaction and to evoke its genomic and non-genomic effects (Norman et al., 2002). The binding of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 to VDRnuc e nhances the interaction with an undistinguished protein known as the nuclear accessory factor (NAF) and to the caroxy-terminal of VDR. This interaction leads to a structural conversion pattern of the C-terminal of VDR allowing the AF-2 domain to attach with other transcriptional elements such as SCR-1, calcium binding protein (CBP) and P300. This promotes the binding of the heterodimer molecule with DNA at the vitamin D response sites (VDRE) and directs its transcriptional gene activity (Jones et al., 1998; Iqbal, 1994). In addition, these coactivators play a role in DNA configurational changes through histone acetyl transferase activation pathway of the core components of histones. This results in mechanical instability of the DNA structure and enhances the net binding capacity of the coactivators with their corresponding receptors at nucleosomal histone level and leads to the upregulation of these transcriptional coactivators which in trun, accelerate the net gene transcriptional rate to promote the synthesis of the analogous protein (Lipkin and Lamprech, 2006; Jones et al., 1998). Conversely, the non-genomic or classical effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is modulated through its binding with the surface cellular membrane receptor known as mVDR which initiates an immediate response in various target tissues with no genomic transcriptional activity. Many studies demonstrate the rapid effect of calcitriol in rapidly increasing both the level of circulating calcium and its absorption rate in animal intestines, evoking phosphoinoisitide bioactivation, cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) elevation, activation of protein kinase C and triggering the mitogen activated protein kinase pathways and involving the chloride gates action potential in different organs (Dusso et al., 2005; Nezbedova and Brtko, 2004; Boyan and Schwartz, 2004; Norman et al., 2002). The entire mechanism, as shown in figure 5, for the rapid effect of calcitriol remains doubtful, however; the proposed mechanism is mediated through the interaction with mVDR leading to a series of intracellular sig naling events. Signaling is orchestrated by the activation of various metabolic pathways involving different transportation mechanisms of certain mineral components of target organs. (Pedrozo et al., 1999; Norman et al., 1999; Revelli et al., 1998). However, other studies reveal that the genomic effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is independent of its non-genomic mechanism (Dusso et al., 2005). Figure 5: Cellular mechanism of action of 1,25(OH)2D3 (Figure from Horst et al., 1997) 1.3- Biological actions of Vitamin D on target tissues and Systems The active form of vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is well recognized as a member of steroid hormones that mediates several metabolic and non-metabolic processes in various organs in human and animals as shown in figure 6. 1.3.1- Intestine Mineral absorption in the intestines is increased in the presence of the hormone 1,25(OH) vitamin D. However without this, only 10 to 15% of dietary calcium and 60% of phosphorus is absorbed from the diet (De Luca, 2004). Ca2+ and HPO42- are also absorbed when intestinal cells interact with the vitamin D- VDR- RXR complex. The latter enhances the expression of the epithelial calcium channel and calcium-binding protein which recruits calcium and phosphorus (Holick, 2007). Knock out mice experiments studying the effect of VDR gene deletions also show that the size of the small intestines is related to the levels of calcitriol and dietary calcium availability. Vitamin D deficient mice fed with diets low in calcium exhibited the largest small intestine to large intestine ratio (Cantorna et al., 2004). VDR knock-out mice experiments also aid in the discovery of calcium channels, the route for Ca absorption, in the intestine (Peng et al., 1999). Calbindin is a potent calcium transporter in mammals which characterized by a high affinity for calcium ions. Therefore, the binding of vitamin D to VDR and RXR signals an increased production of calbindin which facilitates systemic Ca2+ ions transportation and prevent the occurrence of calcium toxicity in the intestines. Figure 6: Schematic diagram of the effects of Vitamin D on different tissues and organs (Figure from Holick, 2007). 1.3.2- Bone Takeda et al. (1999) studied the role of vitamin D and VDR in bone cells using knock out mice experiments. Their results showed that bone cells formation triggering mechanisms such as cell to cell interaction between osteoblast and osteoclast progenitors and stromal cells induced by 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 and provoke the formation of osteoclasts. In their capacity as bone resorbing cells, osteoclasts can be triggered by low serum calcium levels, to break down bone and free calcium back in to the blood thus redistributing calcium throughout the body. However, this does not occur without the expression of VDR and without vitamin D complexing with its receptor. This study emphasizes the important role of recognition sites on the VDR and the structural implications that the receptor-ligand binding has on VDREs and transcription initiation. Although the effects of PTH

A Family Vacation to Canada :: Summer Vacation Essays

This is the actual story of a trip I took with Smith Family into Canada. The total head count was 19, including myself. The trip took 8 days to complete. We left on Saturday, June 24 at 12:00am and got back on Sunday July 1, around 3:00pm. The great Canadian adventure started at 12 noon on Saturday to pack the bus and truck. The bus is an old school bus with a big rack on top to hold canoes, and screens over all the windows. Inside there are 8 bunks in the back for sleeping. The middle is where the food is kept. The front has two tables on each side for playing cards. As soon as I got there I started meeting people. I had only met Craig, Renee, and Amber before at Cameron Smith’s graduation party. There were 3 well fed dogs running around. The first person Tyler pointed out was Harry, his grandpa. He was getting the gas together for the boats and there were about 5 others standing around him. One was Troy and the other was Larry. It was easy to see that Craig and Troy were brothers, they were rigging the bus to carry 5 canoes. Others were busy helping to get ready. I helped put the motor rack in Tyler’s truck. After the bus and truck had all of the canoes on, Jeff, Tyler, and I went back to Tylerâ₠¬â„¢s house to take showers and eat. The plan was to meet Craig at Cash Wise at 8:30 to buy the food. Craig’s Eagle got a flat tire on the way to Willmar. Tyler, Jeff, and I got there at 9:30 but the shopping was already done. As we were leaving Willmar, on our way back to Harry’s, we were able to see fireworks from the â€Å"Works over Water† display on Foot Lake. When we got to Harry’s, there were several cars in the yard. Tyler and I went to the house were I met Erin and Allison for the first time. Erin was eating a pizza and at first glance I thought she was Emily Smith. I could not get over how much Erin, Allison and Amber looked like Emily. Little kids were running everywhere. In the living room, were about 25 people I had never met or seen before, who seemed to be having a good time together.

Tale Tell Heart and Goose Girl

Jack Mitchell Mr. Glen Smith English1302 Oct 10,2012 Compare/Contrast Essay Assignment #2 The unnamed narrator in Edgar Allan Poe’s â€Å"A Tell- Tale Heart† and the chambermaid in the Grimm Brothers â€Å"The Goose Girl† both possess strikingly similar characteristics. Both show aggression and use violence to get what they want but are very careful of how they go about it and covering it up. In Poe’s story, the unnamed narrator kills an elderly man that he is caring for because the old man has a foul looking eye that is covered with a white film.This is what is slowly driving him insane but afterwards he ingeniously decides to hide the body incase someone heard the noise of the olds man body. This is so he does not get arrested for his murder and when the police do stop they believe his story and do not suspect anything, until he gives them a reason. The chambermaid on the other hand forcefully and violently makes the princess, who she knows wont stand up for her self, switch places with her simply because she wants to live the life of the princess.She also makes the princess swear to secrecy so she never has to worry about her true identity being unveiled. Later, she cleverly kills the princess’s talking horse, which was the only witness to what happened between the chambermaid and the real princess’s. In Poe’s â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart† the unnamed narrator is caring for an elderly man who isn’t capable of taking care of himself. The elderly man has a bad eye that has a silky film over the top of it. The narrator becomes sickened and essentially afraid of the eye.He decides that the only way he can get rid of these feelings is to kill the old man thus getting rid of the eye forever Originally, he is hesitant to actually go through with his plan, but he knows it is the only way to end his torture. â€Å"I made up my mind to take the life of the old man, and thus rid myself of the eye forever† (303). He waits until the time is right when the eye is open to kill him â€Å"I did for seven long nights every night just at midnight, but I found the eye always closed; and so it was impossible to do the work† (303).He feels he must kill the man with the evil eye open because â€Å"for it was not the old man who vexed me, but his Evil Eye† (303). Once he finally kills the man, he decides to hide the body incase someone heard the noise or the beating of the man’s heart, which is now driving him even more insane. However, when he was finished cleaning up someone rang his doorbell and when he opened it, â€Å"There entered three men, who introduced themselves, with perfect suavity, as officers of the police† (305). The narrator gave the police a very believable story and they were satisfied.He was almost scott free, but then he starts to hear the thumping of the mans heart and starts going crazy. Convinced the police heard the noise too he ripped up th e planks revealing the body of the elderly man. In the Grimm Brothers â€Å"The Goose Girl†, the chambermaid of the princess so desperately wants to the live the lavish care free life of the princess she decides to test her fate by taking action. This is when her violent behavior is seen for the first time, when she decides to forcefully and violently begin to curse at the princess to dress up as a chambermaid so she can take the princess’s place.She also made the princess to swear to never tell anyone what happened. â€Å"Then with many harsh words, the chambermaid ordered the princess to take off her own royal clothing and put on the chambermaid's shabby clothes. And in the end the princess had to swear under the open heaven that she would not say one word of this to anyone†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (406) When she finally arrives at the castle and marries the king, she asks him for a favor. â€Å"Send for the knacker, and have the head of the horse which I rode here cut off. â €  (408) This is her way of making sure that there are no loose ends and that there is no one or thing that can revel her true identity.However, she does not know the horse can still talk after its’ been beheaded. This small overlooked detail is the root cause to her downfall. The Narrator is portrayed as an insane man who starts to lose control of whatever sanity he has left once he comes into contact with the elderly mans grotesque eye that he thinks is evil. Even though he is portrayed as crazy, in reality he has not lost his mind completely, in he fact that he actually watches the man, investigates the room, and checks the eye to see if it is open â€Å"every night just at midnight†(303). He did this for seven nights, hich clearly shows that he has not completely lost his grip on reality. By waiting for the perfect chance to strike shows patience, mentally and physically. Another sign the narrator was not totally insane was that he had a face-to-face conversatio n with three police officers. In the end, â€Å"The officers were satisfied† and believed his alibi. There is no way a person said to have lost his mind completely could have fooled three trained police officers. On the other hand, the chambermaid in â€Å"The Goose Girl† is seen as a cunning, tough character throughout the story.However, towards the end of the story her true colors begin to shine. By her sending out the knacker to â€Å"have the head of the horse which I rode here cut off, for it angered me on the way. †(306). This shows that she has started to worry and stress over her secret getting out. By her having everything and everyone who could tell her secret around her taken away is the first sign of weakness from her. It is a sign of weakness because she is doing everything possible to save herself and only herself.Lastly, the reason why both the chambermaid and the narrator both got caught and failed to get away was due to them. The narrator was ho me free until he started to panic, thinking the guards could hear what he was hearing he finally lost it â€Å"dissemble no more! I admit the deed! —tear up the planks! here, here! —It is the beating of his hideous heart! † (306). The chambermaid had it done what she had set out to do. However, if she would have stopped and trusted the promise the princess gave her from the beginning she would have been fine.She instead decided to take things into her own hands and had the talking horse beheaded. Finally, the reader can see that both of the characters used every means necessary to get what they wanted which included violence to get what they want but are also very careful of how they go about it and covering it up.Work Cited Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm. â€Å"The Goose-Girl. † Kinder-und Hausmarchen. 7th ed. D. L. Ashilman, trans. Berlin: n. p. , 1857. Print Poe, Edgar Allan. â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart. † The complete Tales and Poems of Edgar All an Poe. New York: Random House, 1975. Print.

What is history essays

What is history essays Carl Becker, a historian, says history may be defined as the study of development on human societies in time and in space. This definition is true. Historians dont just study dates, presidents, and wars. They also arent just interested in famous people either. Historians are interested in all of human societies. Thats why the most important subject of history is man. Man has a lot to do with history. Man is what gave what we have this present day. For example, money houses roads, jobs and so on. Everyone has a history; everyone has a past. Which brings me to my next point. The minute that a person is conceived that person begins to develop in time. In other words he begins to develop a past that keeps going and going until that person has no life to live. People arent the only things that develop a past. States, nations, the whole world actually have pasts. Everything around us has a past; for example Killeen has a past because the town had to start building somewhere. Killeen started becoming a town because Fort Hood was an army base so it started to bring more and more people to the area and because the people were coming to the area businesses started to pop up which means houses and such started coming along with those businesses. Instead of historians studying the past year by year the past is studied in something called time periods. Space is the last thing that Becker said that history is a part of. Everything a human being does is influenced by the physical enviroment of the world. Natural resources, climate, soil, rivers, seas and mountains help out everything that a human being does. Historians study the history of human societies in any geographical area that man has been. For example towns or cities, parts of towns and cities, regions, states, nations, continents, the world and outer space. History can be studied in any geographical area just as long as th ...

Adolf Hitler Summary Essays

Adolf Hitler Summary Essays Adolf Hitler Summary Paper Adolf Hitler Summary Paper Essay Topic: Bad Boy a Memoir Adolf Hitler (German: [? ad? lf ? h? tl? ] ( listen); 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state (as Fuhrer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is most commonly associated with the rise offascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust. A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 Hitler attempted a coup detat, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, at the Burgerbraukeller beer hall in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained support by promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and propaganda. He was appointed chancellor in 1933 and transformed theWeimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. Hitlers avowed aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe. His foreign and domestic policies had the goal of seizing Lebensraum (living space) for the Germanic people. He oversaw the rearmament of Germany and the invasion of Poland by the Wehrmacht in September 1939, which led to the outbreak of World War II in Europe. 2] Under Hitlers direction, in 1941 German forces and their European allies occupied most of Europe and North Africa. These gains were gradually reversed after 1941, and in 1945 the Allied armies defeated the German army. Hitlers racially motivated policies resulted in the deaths of as many as 17 million people,[3] including an estimated six million Jews and between 500,000 and 1,500,000 Roma targeted in the Holocaust. [4] In the final days of th e war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time mistress, Eva Braun. On 30 April 1945- less than two days later- the two committed suicide to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. [5] Ancestry Adolfs mother, Klara Hitlers father, Alois Hitler, was an illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The name of Alois father was not listed on Alois birth certificate, and he bore his mothers surname. [6][7] In 1842 Johann Georg Hiedler married Maria, and in 1876 Johann testified before a notary and three witnesses that he was the father of Alois. [8]Despite his testimony, the question of Alois paternity remained unresolved. For example, Hans Frank suggested the existence of letters claiming that Alois mother was employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz and that the familys 19-year-old son, Leopold Frankenberger, had fathered Alois. [7] No Frankenberger, Jewish or otherwise, is registered in Graz for that period. [9] This claim remained unsupported, however, and Frank himself did not believe that Hitler had Jewish ancestry. [10] The suggestion that Alois father was Jewish was also doubted by historians in the 1990s,[11][12] and Ian Kershaw dismisses the Frankenberger story as a smear by Hitlers adversaries. Kershaw noted that there was no evidence for a family named Frankenberger living in Graz at the time. All Jews had been expelled from Graz under Maximilian I in the 15th century, and were not allowed to settle in Styria until the Basic Laws were passed in 1849. [9][12] At age 39 Alois assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled as Hiedler, Huttler, or Huettler; the name was probably regularised to its final spelling by a clerk. The origin of the name is either one who lives in a hut (Standard German Hutte), shepherd (Standard German huten to guard, English heed), or is from the Slavic wordsHidlar and Hidlarcek. 13] Childhood Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 at around 6:30 pm at the Gasthof zum Pommer, an inn in Ranshofen,[14] a village annexed in 1938 to the municipality ofBraunau am Inn, Upper Austria. He was the third of five children to Alois Hitler and Klara Polzl. Adolfs older siblings – Gustav and Ida – died in infancy. [15]Psychologist Erich Fromm describes th e mother and father as stable, well-intentioned people. [16] Hitler was attached to his mother, who is thought to have pampered him in his early years. His father was a hard-working self-made man who secured a comfortable livelihood for the family. Though often described as a tyrant, Alois character conformed to the authoritarian type of his age, milieu, and class. [17] Adolf Hitler as an infant (c. 1889/1890) At the age of three, his family moved to Kapuzinerstrasse 5[18] in Passau, Germany. There, Hitler would acquire the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect, rather thanAustrian German, which marked his speech all of his life. [19][20][21] In 1894, the family relocated to Leonding near Linz, and in June 1895, Alois retired to a small landholding at Hafeld near Lambach, where he tried his hand at farming and beekeeping. Adolf attended school in nearby Fischlham, and in his free time, he played Cowboys and Indians. Hitler became fixated on warfare after finding a picture book about the Franco-Prussian War among his fathers belongings. [22][23] The move to Hafeld appears to have coincided with the onset of intense father-son conflicts, because Adolf refused to conform to strict school discipline. [24] Alois Hitlers farming efforts at Hafeld ended in failure, and in 1897 the family moved to Lambach. Hitler attended a Catholic school in an 11th-century Benedictine cloister, the walls of which bore engravings and crests that contained the symbol of the swastika. [18] In Lambach the eight-year-old Hitler sang in the church choir, took singing lessons, and even entertained thoughts of one day becoming a priest. [25] In 1898, the family returned permanently to Leonding. The death of his younger brother,Edmund from measles on 2 February 1900 deeply affected Hitler. He changed from being confident and outgoing and an excellent student, to a morose, detached, and sullen boy who constantly fought his father and his teachers. 26] Alois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps. Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs office, depicting it as an event that gave rise to a unforgiving antagonism between father and son who were both equally strong-willed. [27][28][29] Ignoring his son s desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist, in September 1900 his father sent Adolf to the Realschule in Linz, a technical high school of about 300 students. This was the same high school that Adolf Eichmann would attend some 17 years later. )[30] Hitler rebelled against this decision, and inMein Kampf revealed that he did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream. [31] Hitler became obsessed with German nationalism from a young age as a way to rebel against his father, who proudly served the Austrian government. Although many Austrians considered themselvesGermans, they were loyal to Austria. Hitler expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically-variegated empire. [32][33] Hitler and his friends used the German greeting Heil, and sang the German anthem Deutschland Uber Alles instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem. [34] After Alois sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitlers behaviour at the technical school became even more disruptive, and he was asked to leave in 1904. He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904, but upon completing his second year, he and his friends went out for a night of celebration and drinking. While drunk, Hitler tore up his school certificate and used the pieces as toilet paper. The stained certificate was brought to the attention of the schools principal, who gave him such a dressing-down that the boy was reduced to shivering jelly. It was probably the most painful and humiliating experience of his life. [35] Hitler was expelled, never to return to school again. At age 15, Hitler took part in his First Communion on Whitsunday, 22 May 1904, at the Linz Cathedral. [36] His sponsor was Emanuel Lugert, a friend of his late father. 37] Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich From 1905, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna with financial support from orphans benefits and his mother. He was rejected twice by the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna (1907–1908), because of his unfitness for painting, and was recommended to study architecture. [38] However, he lacked the academic credentials required for architecture school: In a few days I myself knew that I should some day become an architect. To be sure, it was an incredibly hard road; for the studies I had neglected out of spite at the Realschule were sorely needed. One could not attend the Academys architectural school without having attended the building school at the Technik, and the latter required a high-school degree. I had none of all this. The fulfilment of my artistic dream seemed physically impossible. [39] The Courtyard of the Old Residency in Munich. Adolf Hitler, 1914 On 21 December 1907, Hitlers mother died of breast cancer at age 47; Hitler was devastated, and carried the grief from her death with him for the rest of his life. Ordered by a court in Linz, Hitler gave his share of the orphans benefits to his sister Paula, and at the age of 21, he inherited money from an aunt. He struggled as a painter in Vienna, copying scenes from postcards and selling his paintings to merchants and tourists. After being rejected a second time by the Academy of Arts, Hitler ran out of money. In 1909, he lived in a shelter for the homeless, and by 1910, he had settled into a house for poor working men on Meldemannstra? e. Another resident of the shelter, Reinhold Hanisch, sold Hitlers paintings, until the two men had a bitter falling-out. [40] Hitler stated that he first became an antisemite in Vienna,[41] which had a large Jewish community, including Orthodox Jews who had fled the pogroms inRussia. There were few Jews in Linz. In the course of centuries their outward appearance had become Europeanised and had taken on a human look; in fact, I even took them for Germans. The absurdity of this idea did not dawn on me because I saw no distinguishing feature but the strange religion. The fact that they had, as I believed, been persecuted on this account sometimes almost turned my distaste at unfavorable remarks about them into horror. Thus far I did not so much as suspect the existence of an organized opposition to the Jews. Then I came to Vienna. 41] Once, as I was strolling through the Inner City, I suddenly encountered an apparition in a black caftan and black hair locks. Is this a Jew? was my first thought. For, to be sure, they had not looked like that in Linz. I observed the man furtively and cautiously, but the longer I stared at this foreign face, scrutinizing feature for feature, the more my first question assumed a new form: Is this a German? [42] Hitlers account has been questioned by his childhood friend, August Kubizek, who suggested that Hitler was already a confirmed antisemite before he left Linz for Vienna. Brigitte Hamann has challenged his account, writing that of all those early witnesses who can be taken seriously Kubizek is the only one to portray young Hitler as an anti-Semite and precisely in this respect he is not trustworthy. [43] If Hitler was an antisemite even before settling in Vienna, apparently he did not act on his views. He was a frequent dinner guest in a wealthy Jewish home: he interacted well with Jewish merchants, and sold his paintings almost exclusively to Jewish dealers. [44][45] At the time Hitler lived there, Vienna was a hotbed of traditional religious prejudice and 19th-century racism. Fears of been overrun by immigrants from the East were widespread and the populist mayor,Karl Lueger, was adept at exploiting the rhetoric of virulent antisemitism for political effect. Georg Schonerers pangermanic ethnic antisemitism had a strong following and base in the Mariahilf district, where Hitler lived. [46] Local newspapers like the Deutsches Volksblatt, which Hitler read, fanned prejudices, as did Rudolf Vrbas writings, which played on Christian fears of being swamped by an influx of eastern Jews. [47] He probably read occult writings, like the antisemitic magazine Ostara, published by Lanz von Liebenfels. 48] Hostile to what he saw as Catholic Germanophobia, he developed a strong admiration for Luther. [49] Luthers foundational antisemitic writings were to play an important role in later Nazi propaganda. [50] Hitler received the final part of his fathers estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich. He wrote in Mein Kampf that he had always longed to live in a real German city. In Munich he further pursued his interest in architecture and studied the writings of Houston Stewart Chamberlain, who, a decade later, was to become the first person of national- and even international- repute to align himself with Hitler and the Nazi movement. 51] Hitler also may have left Vienna to avoid conscription into the Austrian army; he was disinclined to serve the Habsburg state and was repulsed by what he perceived as a mixture of races in the Austrian army. [52] After a physical exam on 5 February 1914, he was deemed unfit for service and returned to Munich. [53] When Germany entered World War I in August 1914, he successfully petitioned King Ludwig III of Bavaria for permission to serve in a Bavarian regiment. [54] World War I Main article: Military career of Adolf Hitler Hitler served as a runner on the Western Front in France and Belgium in the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16. He experienced major combat, including the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Arras, and the Battle of Passchendaele. [55] Hitler with his army comrades of the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 (c. 1914–1918) Hitler was decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class, in 1914. Recommended by Hugo Gutmann, he received the Iron Cross, First Class, on 4 August 1918,[56] a decoration rarely awarded to one of Hitlers rank (Gefreiter). Hitlers post at regimental headquarters, where he had frequent interactions with senior officers, may have helped him receive this decoration. [57] The regimental staff, however, thought Hitler lacked leadership skills, and he was never promoted. He also received the Wound Badge on 18 May 1918. [58] While serving at regimental headquarters Hitler pursued his artwork, drawing cartoons and instructions for an army newspaper. In October 1916 he was wounded either in the groin area[59] or the left thigh when a shell exploded in the dispatch runners dugout during the Battle of the Somme. 60] Hitler spent almost two months in the Red Cross hospital at Beelitz. He returned to his regiment on 5 March 1917. [61] Adolf Hitler as a soldier during the First World War (1914–1918) On 15 October 1918, Hitler was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack. [62] It has been suggested that his blindness may have been an hysterical symptom brought on by the shock at the rapid reversal of German ys war fortunes. [63] He was hospitalised in Pasewalk. Hitler became embittered over the collapse of the war effort. It was during this time that Hitlers ideological development began to firmly take shape. [64] According to Lucy Dawidowicz, Hitlers intention to exterminate Europes Jews took definitive shape by the end of World War I. [65] Hitler described the war as the greatest of all experiences, and he was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery. [66] The experience made Hitler a passionate German patriot, and he was shocked by Germanys capitulation in November 1918. [67] Like many other German nationalists, Hitler believed in the Dolchsto? egende (Stab-in-the-back legend), which claimed that the German army, undefeated in the field, had been stabbed in the back on the home front by civilian leaders and Marxists, later dubbed the November Criminals. [68] The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland. The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied reparations on the country. Many Germans perceived the treaty - especially Article 231, which declared Germany responsible for the war- as a humiliation. 69]The economic, social, and political conditions in Germany effected by the war and the Versailles treaty were later exploited by Hitler for political gains. [70] Entry into politics Main article: Adolf Hitlers political views After World War I, Hitler remained in the army and returned to Munich, where he attended the funeral march for the murdered Bavarian prime minister Kurt Eisner. [71] After the suppression of theBavarian Soviet Republic, he took part in national thinking courses organised by the Education and Propaganda Department of the Bavarian Reichswehr under Captain Karl Mayr. 72] In July 1919 Hitler was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklarungskommando (reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, both to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate theGerman Workers Party (DAP). While he studied the activities of the DAP, Hitler became impressed with founder A nton Drexlers antisemitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist and anti-Marxist ideas. [73]Drexler favoured a strong active government, a non-Jewish version of socialism, and solidarity among all members of society. Drexler was impressed with Hitlers oratory skills and invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on 12 September 1919,[74] becoming the partys 55th member. [75] A copy of Adolf Hitlers German Workers Party (DAP) membership card At the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of its early founders and a member of the occult Thule Society. [76] Eckart became Hitlers mentor, exchanging ideas with him and introducing Hitler to a wide range of people in Munich society. [77] Hitler thanked Eckart and paid tribute to him in the second volume ofMein Kampf. To increase the partys appeal, the party changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party – NSDAP). 78] Hitler designed the partys banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background. [79] Hitler was discharged from the army in March 1920, and he began working full time for the party. By early 1921 Hitler had become highly effective at speaking to large audiences. In February 1921 Hitler spoke to a crowd of over six thousand in Munich. [80] To pub licise the meeting, two truckloads of party supporters drove around town waving swastika flags and throwing leaflets. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy, polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, and especially against Marxists and Jews. [81] At the time, the NSDAP was centred in Munich, a major hotbed of anti-government German nationalists determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic. [82] In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the DAP in Munich. Members of the DAPs executive committee, some of whom considered Hitler to be too overbearing, wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP). 83] Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July 1921 and angrily tendered his resignation from the DAP. The committee members then realised that Hitlers resignation would mean the end of the party. [84] Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. [85] The committee agreed to his demands; Hitler rejoined the party as member 3,680. Hitler still faced some oppos ition within the DAP: Hermann Esser and his allies printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party. 85][a] In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself to thunderous applause. Hitlers strategy proved successful: at a general DAP membership meeting, he was granted absolute powers as party chairman, with only one nay vote cast. [87] Hitlers vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences. Early followers included Rudolf Hess, the former air force pilot Hermann Goring, and the army captain Ernst Rohm. The latter became head of the Nazis paramilitary organisation, the Sturmabteilung (SA, Storm Division), which protected meetings and frequently attacked political opponents. A critical influence on his thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung,[88][page needed] a conspiratorial group formed of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists. The group, financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists like Henry Ford, introduced him to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy, linking international finance with Bolshevism. [89] Hitler attracted the attention of local business interests. He was accepted into influential circles of Munich society and became associated with wartime General Erich Ludendorff. Drawing of Hitler (30 October 1923) Beer Hall Putsch Main article: Beer Hall Putsch Encouraged by his new support, Hitler recruited Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch (also known as the Hitler Putsch or MunichPutsch). The Nazi Party had used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies, and in 1923, Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolinis March on Rome by staging his own Campaign in Berlin. Hitler and Ludendorff sought support of Staatskommissar (state commissioner) Gustav von Kahr, Bavarias de factoruler. However, Kahr, along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser (Sei? er) and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow, wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler. [90] Hitler wanted to seize a critical moment for successful popular agitation and support. [91] On 8 November 1923, Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3,000 people that had been organised by Kahr in the Burgerbraukeller, a large beer hall in Munich. Hitler interrupted Kahrs speech and announced that the national revolution had begun, declaring the formation of a new government with Ludendorff. 92] With his handgun drawn, Hitler demanded the support of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow. [92]Hitlers forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters; however, neither the army nor the state police joined forces with Hitler. [93] Kahr and his consorts quickly withdrew their support and fled to join the opposition to Hitler. [94] The next day, Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government on their March on Berlin, but the police dispersed them. 95] Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup. [96] Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl, and by some accounts he contemplated suicide; this state of mind has been disputed by others. [97] Hitler was depressed but calm when he was arrested on 11 November 1923. [98] He was tried for high treason before the special Peoples Court in Munich,[99] and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP. Hitlers trial began on 26 February 1924; on 1 April 1924 Hitler was sentenced to five years imprisonment at Landsberg Prison. 100]Hitler received friendly treatment from the guards and received a lot of mail from supporters. The Bavarian Supreme Court issued a pardon and he was released from jail on 20 December 1924, against the state prosecutors objections. [101] Including time on remand, Hitler had served j ust over one year in prison. [102] Mein Kampf Dust jacket of Mein Kampf (1926–1927) Main article: Mein Kampf While at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle, originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. 102] The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and an exposition of his ideology. Mein Kampf was influenced by The Passing of the Great Race by Madison Grant, which Hitler called my Bible. [103] Mein Kampfwas published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, selling about 240,000 copies between 1925 and 1934. By the end of the war, about 10 million copies had been sold or distributed. The copyright of Mein Kampf in Europe is claimed by the Free State of Bavaria and will end on 31 December 2015. In Germany, only heavily commented editions of Mein Kampf are available- solely for academic studies. Rebuilding the NSDAP Hitler (left), standing behindHermann Goring at a Nazi rally inNuremberg (c. 1928) At the time of Hitlers release from prison, politics in Germany had become less combative, and the economy had improved. This limited Hitlers opportunities for political agitation. As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch, the NSDAP and its affiliated organisations were banned in Bavaria. In a meeting with Prime Minister of Bavaria Heinrich Held on 4 January 1925, Hitler agreed to respect the authority of the state: he would only seek political power through the democratic process. The meeting paved the way for the ban on the NSDAP to be lifted[104] on 16 February 1925, but Hitler was barred from public speaking as of 9 March. [105] To advance his political ambitions in spite of the ban, Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser along with his brother Otto and Joseph Goebbels to organise and grow the NSDAP in northern Germany. A superb organiser, Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course, emphasising the socialist element in the partys programme. [106] Hitler established an autocratic rule of the NSDAP by asserting the Fuhrerprinzip (Leader principle). What emerged was a political organisation where rank in the party was determined not by elections, but rather positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank, who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader. [107] A key element of Hitlers appeal was his ability to evoke a sense of violated national pride as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. Many Germans strongly resented the terms of the treaty, especially the economic burden of having to pay large reparations to other countries affected by World War I. Nonetheless, attempts by Hitler to win popular support by blaming the demands and assertions in the treaty on international Jewry were largely unsuccessful with the electorate. Therefore, Hitler and his party began employing more subtle propaganda methods, combining antisemitism with an attack on the failures of the Weimar system and the parties supporting it. [citation needed] Having failed in overthrowing the republic and gaining power by a coup, Hitler changed tactics and pursued a strategy of formally adhering to the rules of the Weimar Republic until he had gained political power through regular elections. His vision was to then use the institutions of the Weimar Republic to destroy it and establish himself as autocratic leader. Rise to power Main article: Adolf Hitlers rise to power Nazi Party election results DateTotal votesVotes, percentageReichstag seatsNotes May 1924 1,918,300[108] 6. 532[108] Hitler in prison December 1924 907,300[108] 3. 014[108] Hitler released from prison May 1928 810,100[109] 2. 612[109] September 1930 6,409,600[109] 18. 3[110] 107[109] After the financial crisis July 1932 13,745,000[111] 37. 3[110] 230[111] After Hitler was candidate for presidency November 1932 1,737,00033. 1[112] 196[113] March 1933 17,277,180[114] 43. 9[115] 288[115] During Hitlers term as Chancellor of Germany Bruning administration Hitler and NSDAP treasurer Franz Xaver Schwarz at the dedication of the renovation of the Palais Barlow on Brienner Stra? e in Munich into the Brown Househeadquarters, December 1930 Paul von Hindenburg and Adolf Hitler. Hitlers political turning point came wi th the Great Depression in Germany in 1930. The Weimar Republic had difficulty taking root in German society and faced strong challenges from right- and left-wing extremists. The moderate political parties committed to the democratic parliamentary republic were increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism, and the German referendum of 1929 had helped to elevate the profile and prominence of Nazi ideology. [116]In elections in September 1930, the moderates lost their majority, leading to the break-up of a grand coalition and its replacement by a minority cabinet. Its leader, chancellor Heinrich Bruning of the Centre Party, governed through emergency decrees from the president of state, Paul von Hindenburg. Tolerated by most parties, governance by decree would become the new norm and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government. [117] The NSDAP rose from relative obscurity to win 18. 3% of the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election, becoming the second-largest party in the German parliament. [118] The increasing political clout of Hitler was felt at the trial of two Reichswehr officers, Leutnants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin, in the autumn of 1930. Both were charged with membership of the NSDAP, which at that time was illegal for Reichswehr personnel. 119] The prosecution argued that the NSDAP was a dangerous extremist party, prompting defence lawyer Hans Frank to call on Hitler to testify in court. [120] During his testimony on 25 September 1930, Hitler stated that his party was planning to come to power solely through democratic elections and that the NSDAP was a friend of the Reichswehr. [121] Hitlers testimony won him many supporters in the officer corps. [122] Brunings budgetary and financial austerity measures brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular. 123] Hitler exploited this weakness by targeting his political messages specifically to the segments of the population that had been hard hit by the inflation of the 1920s and the unemployment of the Depression, such as farmers, war veterans, and the middle class. [124] Hitler formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925, but at the time did not acquire German citizenship. For almost seven years Hitler was stateless, so he was unable to run for public office and even faced the risk of deportation. 125] On 25 February 1932 the interior minister of Brunswick, who was a member of the NSDAP, appointed Hitler as administrator for the states delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin, making Hitler a citizen of Brunswick,[126]and thus of Germany as well. [127] In 1932 Hitler ran against the ageing President Paul von Hindenburg in the presidential elections. The viability of his candidacy was underscored by a 27 January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in Dusseldorf, which won him support from a broad swath of Germanys most powerful industrialists. 128] However, Hindenburg had broad support from various nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, and republican parties and even some social democrats. Hitler used the campaign slogan Hitler uber Deutschland (Hitler over Germany), a reference to both his political ambitions and to his campaigning by aircraft. [129] Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more than 35% of the vote in the final election. Although he lost to Hindenburg, this election established Hitler as a credible force in German politics. [130] In September 1931 Hitlers niece, Geli Raubal, committed suicide with Hitlers gun in his Munich apartment. Geli was believed to be in a romantic relationship with Hitler, and it is believed that her death was a source of deep, lasting pain for him. [131] Appointment as Chancellor Because of the difficulties of forming a stable and effective government, two influential politicians, Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg, as well as a number of industrialists and businessmen, including Hjalmar Schacht and Fritz Thyssen, wrote to Hindenburg, urging him to appoint Hitler as leader of a government independent from parliamentary parties which could turn into a movement that would enrapture millions of people. [132][133] Hitler, at the window of the Reich Chancellery, receives an ovation on the evening of his inauguration as Chancellor, 30 January 1933 After two parliament elections- in July and November 1932- had failed to result in a majority government, President Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler chancellor of a coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenbergs party, the Ge rman National Peoples Party (DNVP). As a concession to the NSDAP, Hermann Goring, who was head of the Prussian police at the time, was named minister without portfolio. So although von Papen intended to install Hitler merely as a figurehead, the NSDAP gained key political positions. On 30 January 1933, Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor during a brief and simple ceremony in Hindenburgs office. Hitlers first speech as Chancellortook place on 10 February. The Nazis seizure of power subsequently became known as the Machtergreifung or Machtubernahme. Reichstag fire and March elections As chancellor, Hitler worked against attempts by his political opponents to uild a majority government. Because of the political stalemate, Hitler asked President Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag again, and elections were scheduled for early March. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire,[134] and since Marinus van der Lubbe, a Dutch independent communist, was found in the burning building, a communist plot was blamed for the fire. The central government responded with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February, which suspended basic rights, incl uding habeas corpus. Activities of theGerman Communist Party were suppressed, and communist party members were arrested, forced to flee, or murdered. [citation needed] Besides political campaigning, the NSDAP used paramilitary violence and spread of anti-communist propaganda on the days preceding the election. On election day, 6 March 1933, the NSDAP increased its result to 43. 9% of the vote, gaining the largest number of seats in parliament. However, Hitlers party failed to secure an absolute majority, thus again necessitating a coalition with the DNVP. [135] Day of Potsdam and the Enabling Act On 21 March 1933, the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony held at Potsdams garrison church. This Day of Potsdam was staged to demonstrate reconciliation and unity between the revolutionary Nazi movement and Old Prussia with its elites and perceived virtues. Hitler appeared in a tail coat and humbly greeted the aged President Hindenburg. [136] In the Nazis quest for full political control- they had failed to gain an absolute majority in the prior parliamentary election- Hitlers government brought the Ermachtigungsgesetz (Enabling Act) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag. The legislation gave Hitlers cabinet full legislative powers for a period of four years. Although such a bill was not unprecedented, this act was different since it allowed for deviations from the constitution. [136] Since the bill required a ? majority to pass, the government needed the support of other parties. The position of the Centre Party, the third largest party in theReichstag, turned out to be decisive: under the leadership of Ludwig Kaas, the party decided to vote for the Enabling Act. It did so in return for the governments oral guarantees of the Catholic Churchs liberty, the concordats signed by German states, and the continued existence of the Centre Party. [137] On 23 March, the Reichstag assembled in a replacement building under turbulent circumstances. Several SA men served as guards inside, while large groups outside the building shouted slogans and threats toward the arriving members of parliament. Kaas announced that the Centre Party would support the bill with concerns put aside, while Social Democrat Otto Wels denounced the act in his speech. 138] At the end of the day, all parties except the Social Democrats voted in favour of the bill- the Communists, as well as several Social Democrats, were barred from attending the vote. The Enabling Act, along with the Reichstag Fire Decree, transformed Hitlers government into a de facto dictatorship. Removal of remaining limits At the risk of appearing to talk nonsense I tell you that the National Socialist moveme nt will go on for 1,000 years! Dont forget how people laughed at me 15 years ago when I declared that one day I would govern Germany. They laugh now, just as foolishly, when I declare that I shall remain in power! Adolf Hitler to a British correspondent in Berlin, June 1934[139] Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government, Hitler and his political allies embarked on systematic suppression of the remaining political opposition. After the dissolution of the Communist Party, the Social Democratic Party was also banned and all its assets seized. The Steel Helmets were placed under Hitlers leadership with some autonomy as an auxiliary police force. [citation needed] On 1 May, demonstrations were held, and Sturmabteilung (SA) stormtroopers demolished trade union offices. On 2 May 1933 all trade unions in the country were forced to dissolve. A new union organisation was formed, representing all workers, administrators, and company owners together as one group. This new trade union reflected the concept of national socialism in the spirit of Hitlers Volksgemeinschaft (community of all German people). [140] In 1934, Hitler became Germanys president under the title of Fuhrer und Reichskanzler(Leader and Chancellor of the Reich) On 14 July 1933, Hitlers Nazi Party was declared the only legal party in Germany. 140] Hitler used the SA to pressure Hugenberg into resigning, and proceeded to politically isolate Vice-Chancellor von Papen. [citation needed] The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused much anxiety among military, industrial, and political leaders. Hitler was prompted to purge the entire SA leadership, including Ernst Rohm, and other political adversaries (such as Gregor Strasserand former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher). Th ese actions took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934, in what became known as the Night of the Long Knives. 141] While some Germans were shocked by the killing, many others saw Hitler as the one who restored order to the country. [142] On 2 August 1934, President von Hindenburg died. In contravention to the Weimar Constitution, which called for presidential elections, and in spite of a law passed the previous day in anticipation of Hindenburgs imminent death, Hitlers cabinet declared the presidency vacant and transferred the powers of the head of state to Hitler asFuhrer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor). This removed the last legal remedy by which Hitler could be dismissed, and nearly all institutional checks and balances on his power. Hitlers move also violated the Enabling Act, which had barred tampering with the office of the presidency. On 19 August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by a plebiscite with support of 84. 6% of the electorate. [143][144] As head of state, Hitler now became Supreme Commander of the armed forces. The traditional loyalty oath of soldiers and sailors was altered to affirm loyalty directly to Hitler rather than to the office of commander-in-chief. 145] In early 1938, Hitler brought the armed forces under his direct control by forcing the resignation of his War Minister (formerly Defence Minister), Werner von Blombergon evidence that Blombergs new wife had a police record for prostitution. [146] Hitler also removed army commander Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch after the SSprovided false allegations he had taken part in a homosexual relationship, which had led to blackmail. [147] The episode became known as the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair. Hitler replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (High Command of the Armed Forces, or OKW), headed by General Wilhelm Keitel. By early February 1938, twelve generals (apart from Blomberg and Fritsch) were also removed. [148] Third Reich Main article: Nazi Germany Having consolidated his political powers, Hitler suppressed or eliminated his opposition by a process termed Gleichschaltung (bringing into line). He attempted to gain additional public support by vowing to reverse the effects of the Depression and the Versailles treaty. Economy and culture Increased economic activities were enabled largely by refinancing long-term debts into cheaper short-term debts and expansion of the military. [citation needed] For example, Hitlers reconstruction and rearmament were financed with currency manipulations by Hjalmar Schacht, including credits through the Mefo bills. Totenehrung (honouring of dead): Reichsfuhrer-SS Heinrich Himmler, Adolf Hitler, and SA leader Viktor Lutze on the terrace in front of the Ehrenhalle (Hall of Honour); in the background: the crescent-shaped Ehrentribune (tribune of honour). September 1934, Nazi party rally grounds,Nuremberg Nazi policies strongly encouraged women to bear children and stay at home. In a September 1934 speech to the NS-Frauenschaft (National Socialist Womens League), Hitler argued that for the German woman, her world is her husband, her family, her children, and her home. [149][150] The Cross of Honor of the German Mother was bestowed on women bearing four or more children. The unemployment rate fell substantially, mostly through arms production, restrictions of labour unions, and women leaving the workforce. citation needed] Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. However, these programmes lowered the overall standard of living of workers who earlier had been unaffected by the chronic unemployment of the later Weimar Republic; wages were slightly reduced in pre–World War II years, while the cost of li ving was increased by 25%. [151]. From 1933 to 1934 wages suffered a 5% cut. [152] Hitlers government sponsored architecture on an immense scale. Albert Speer, instrumental in implementing Hitlers classicist reinterpretation of German culture, became the first architect of the Reich. In 1936 Hitler opened the summer Olympic games in Berlin. Hitler made some contributions to the design of the Volkswagen Beetle and charged Ferdinand Porsche with its design and construction. [153] On 20 April 1939 a lavish celebration was held for Hitlers 50th birthday, featuring military parades, visits from foreign dignitaries, Nazi banners, and thousands of flaming torches. 154] Historians such as David Schoenbaum and Henry Ashby Turner argue that Hitlers social and economic policies were modernisation that had anti-modern goals. [155]Others, including Rainer Zitelmann, have contended that Hitler had the deliberate strategy of pursuing a revolutionary modernisation of German society. [156] Rearmament and new alliances Main articles: Axis powers, Tripartite Pact, and German re-armament In a meeting with German military leaders on 3 February 193 3, Hitler spoke of conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation as his ultimate foreign policy objectives. 157] In March 1933 State Secretary at the Auswartiges Amt (Foreign Office) Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bulow issued a major statement of German foreign policy aims. The statement advocated Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of Germanys national borders of 1914, rejection of Part V of the Treaty of Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe. Hitler found Bulows goals to be too modest. 158] In his peace speeches of the mid-1930s, Hitler stressed the peaceful goals of his policies and willingness to work within international agreements. [159] At the first meeting of his Cabinet in 1933, Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief. [160] In October 1933 Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference, and his Foreign Minister Bar onKonstantin von Neurath stated that the French demand for securite was a principal stumbling block. [161] On 25 October 1936 an Axis was declared between Italy and Germany In March 1935 Hitler rejected Part V of the Versailles treaty by announcing an expansion of the German army to 600,000 members (six times the number stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles), including development of an Air Force (Luftwaffe) and increasing the size of the Navy (Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy, and the League of Nations condemned these plans. [162] On 18 June 1935 the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) was signed, allowing German tonnage to increase to 35% of that of the British avy. Hitler called the signing of the AGNA the happiest day of his life as he believed the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf. [163] France and Italy were not consulted before the signing, directly undermining the League of Nations and putting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance. [164] On 13 September 1935 Hitler ordered Dr. Bernhard Losener and Fr anz Albrecht Medicus of the Interior Ministry to start drafting antisemitic laws for Hitler to bring to the floor of the Reichstag. 165] On 15 September, Hitler presented two laws- known as the Nuremberg Laws- before the Reichstag. The laws banned marriage between non-Jewish and Jewish Germans, and forbade the employment of non-Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households. The laws deprived so-called non-Aryans of the benefits of German citizenship. [165] Hitler with Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Heinrich Himmler, andReinhard Heydrich in Vienna, 1938 In March 1936 Hitler reoccupied the demilitarized zone in the Rhineland, in violation the Versailles treaty. Hitler sent troops to Spain to support General Franco after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936. At the same time, Hitler continued his efforts to create an Anglo-German alliance. [166] In August 1936, in response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts, Hitler issued a memorandum orderingHermann Goring to carry out a Four Year Plan to have Germany ready for war within the next four years. 167] The Four-Year Plan Memorandum laid out an imminent all-out struggle between Judeo-Bolshevism and German National Socialism, which in Hitlers view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs. [168] On 25 October 1936 Count Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Benito Mussolinis government, declared an axis between Germany and Italy, and on 25 November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Britain, China, Italy, and Poland were also invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, but only Italy signed in 1937. By late 1937 Hitler had abandoned his dream of an Anglo-German alliance, blaming inadequate British leadership. [169] On 5 November 1937 Hitler held a secret meeting at the Reich Chancellery with his war and foreign ministers and military chiefs. As recorded in the Hossbach Memorandum, Hitler stated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum (living space) for the German people, and ordered preparations for war in the east, which would commence no later than 1943. Hitler stated that the conference minutes were to be regarded as his political testament in the event of his death. 170] Hitler said that the crisis of the German economy had reached a point that a severe decline in living standards in Germany could only be stopped by a policy of military aggression- seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia. [171][172] Hitler urged quick action, before Britain and France obtained a permanent lead in the arms race. [171] In early 1938, in the wake of the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler asserted control of the military-foreign policy apparatus and the abolition of the War Ministry and its replacement by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW). He dismissed Neurath as Foreign Minister on 4 February 1938, and assumed the role and title of theOberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (supreme commander of the armed forces). [167] From early 1938 onwards, Hitler was carrying out a foreign policy that had war as its ultimate aim. [173] The Holocaust The Holocaust Part of: Jewish history Responsibility[show] Early policies[show] Victims[show] Ghettos[show] Atrocities[show] Camps[show] Resistance[show]

Body Parts in Japanese Vocabulary

Body Parts in Japanese Vocabulary Body parts are important terms to know, regardless of the language you are speaking. And Japanese is no exception. Whether you want to say the Japanese word for head (atama),  hair (kami), or even the toe (tsumasaki), its important not just to know their  meanings, but to be able to pronounce each body part correctly. Parts of the Body (Karada Bubun) The table below presents the Japanese words for body parts, with the Japanese word written in Latin script (romaji) on the left, followed by the body part listed in Japanese letters (kanji), with the English translation on the right. Click the links to hear the correct pronunciations. karada body atama head kami hair kao face hitai forehead me eye mayu eyebrow mabuta eyelid matusge eyelash hana nose mimi ear kuchi mouth kuchibiru lip ha teeth shita tongue nodo throat ago jaw kubi neck kata shoulder ude arm hiji elbow te hand yubi finger tsume nail mune chest senaka back onaka stomach hiza knee ashikubi ankle kakato heel tsumasaki toe

Iran's nuclear ambitions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5750 words

Iran's nuclear ambitions - Essay Example In this age of variegated ideological, economic and cultural differences and interests, the renunciation of nuclear weapons may, on the fact of it, sounds utopian. Even the results of so many treaties and meetings on banning nuclear weapons have not yielded encouragement of a considerable amplitude and one inclines to conclude that with the progress made so far in this direction and with sustained efforts to mobilize public opinion against building nuclear stockpiles, renunciation would be an impossible feat. Since 1957 [1], the Iranian nuclear program proved to be a dilemma for the rest of the world. As the 21st century set its pace, Iranian nuclear issue has attracted a substantial attention of the world. There has been a long held world-wide suspicion that the Islamic republic of Iran has been pursuing a nuclear weapon capability over least two decades The last couple of year’s events have strengthened this suspicion. That suspicion is fed by Iran’s impel to obtain all capabilities of nuclear power technology, whether economically corroborated or not [2]. Iran’s strong cadence towards the realization of nuclear technology that would consent Iran to produce highly enriched uranium and nuclear explosives plutonium, is especially worrisome for the rest of the world and particularly United States and its close allies.This fact has been vehemently denied by the Tehran Islamic regime. It asserts that Iran’s nuclear activities and development is for peaceful purposes and not for making nuclear arsenals... Iran has signed multilateral Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) [4] and has agreed to accept International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) supervision, or safeguards, over a host of nuclear activities. Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) allows transfers of nuclear technology for peaceful purposes to non-nuclear weapon states. The treaty even facilitates that as long as nuclear facilities are accessible to IAEA inspectors the the production of enriched uranium and separation of plutonium from irradiated reactor fuel is not illegal, while IAEA safeguards main purpose is to provide confidence building measures that peaceful nuclear facilities in non-nuclear states are not exploited for nuclear weapon purposes [5]. On December 18, 2003, Iran went one step ahead when it had signed an additional protocol that allowed IAEA inspectors to access Iranian nuclear R&D locations and military-owned workshops. The IAEA inspectors also conducted interviews to Iranian nuclear program individuals and examined the design and procurement documents. IAEA surveillance system was also installed at Isfahan ____________________________________________________________________________________ [3] "Iran's Resumption of Its Nuclear Program" By Frederic L. Kirgis, The American Society of International Law (ASIL) Insight, dated: August 22, 2005. Available at, http://www.asil.org/insights/2005/08/insights050822.htm [4] Iran had signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) on July 1, 1968 during Shah Rule. See "Iran's Nuclear Program Has a Long History" written by Roland Flamini, reference [1]. [5] "Iran, International Law and Nuclear Disarmament", by David Krieger, February 2006. Available at,